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In several nations, rulers welcomed leaders of the Enlightenment at court and asked them to Beat The Beast Mighty Sphinx Slot help design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger states. These rulers are called "enlightened despots" by historians.[58] They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Leopold II of Tuscany and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing many reforms that had little support so that revolts broke out and his regime became a comedy of errors and nearly all his programs were reversed.[59] Senior ministers Pombal in Portugal and Johann Friedrich Struensee in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model constitution of 1791 expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year before the nation was partitioned among its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland.[60]

The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity – the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their conception of the "public" with that of the people: Condorcet contrasted "opinion" with populace, Marmontel "the opinion Paris Slot Machines of men of letters" with "the opinion of the multitude" and d'Alembert the "truly enlightened public" with "the blind and noisy multitude".[172] Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes.[173] Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges.